In der Medizin wird die Resorption als der Prozess definiert, durch den Substanzen (z. B. Medikamente und Nährstoffe) den Blutkreislauf erreichen.

A resistência antimicrobiana ocorre quando os patógenos (principalmente bactérias e fungos) desenvolvem mecanismos moleculares que permitem que eles se tornem resistentes aos medicamentos desenvolvidos para matá-los.

A resistência antimicrobiana ocorre quando os patógenos (principalmente bactérias e fungos) desenvolvem mecanismos moleculares que lhes permitem tornar-se resistentes aos fármacos concebidos para os matar.

A resposta imune é a reação do sistema imune (composta por células e tecidos imunes) de um organismo contra substâncias e patógenos estranhos. Em algumas condições, o sistema imune também pode reagir contra as automoléculas. Essa reação é definida como resposta autoimune (ou autoimunidade). Existem vários tipos de células que regulam a resposta imune, incluindo monócitos, macrófagos, mastócitos, células dendríticas, células natural killer (NK), neutrófilos, eosinófilos, basófilos e linfócitos (células B e células T).

A resposta imunitária é a reação do sistema imunitário (composto por células e tecidos imunitários) de um organismo contra substâncias estranhas e agentes patogénicos. Em algumas condições, o sistema imunitário também pode reagir contra as automoléculas. Esta reação é definida como resposta autoimune (ou autoimunidade). Existem vários tipos de células que regulam a resposta imunitária, incluindo monócitos, macrófagos, mastócitos, células dendríticas, células natural killer (NK), neutrófilos, eosinófilos, basófilos e linfócitos (células B e células T).

Rote Blutkörperchen oder Erythrozyten transportieren Sauerstoff aus der Lunge in das Gewebe und transportieren Kohlendioxid aus dem Gewebe in die Lunge, wo es ausgeschieden wird. Diese Gasaustauschfunktion ist dank des Hämoglobins möglich, einem Hauptbestandteil von RBK, das eine hohe Sauerstoffaffinität aufweist. RBK sind klein (ihr Durchmesser beträgt etwa 6–8 µm), bikonkav und sehr flexibel, sodass sie fast jeden Teil des Körpers erreichen können.

RBCs bring oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carry carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs, where it is eliminated. This gas-exchange function is possible thanks to the hemoglobin, a major component of RBCs, which has high affinity for oxygen. RBCs are small (their diameter is about 6-8 µm), biconcave, and they are very flexible, thus allowing them to reach almost every district of the body.

Ribonukleinsäure (RNA) ist ein lineares Polymer mit der wesentlichen Funktion der Umwandlung der genetischen Informationen in funktionelle Moleküle wie Proteine. Tatsächlich wird die Boten-RNA (messenger RNA, mRNA) nach dem Kopieren aus der DNA in Proteine übersetzt, die die meisten lebenden Funktionen innerhalb der Zelle erfüllen. Darüber hinaus haben RNA-Moleküle andere wichtige Funktionen. Zum Beispiel dienen Transfer-RNA(tRNA)-Moleküle als „Adaptoren“ zwischen dem mRNA-Molekül und der wachsenden Kette von Aminosäuren, die das Protein bilden. Zusätzlich sind ribosomale RNA(rRNA)-Moleküle primäre Komponenten der Ribosomen, der komplexen Maschinen, die die mRNA in Proteine umwandeln. Siehe auch „Transkription und Translation“.

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a linear polymer with the essential function of transforming the genetic information into functional molecules, such as proteins. Indeed, once copied from DNA, the messenger RNA (mRNA) is then translated into proteins, which fulfill most of the living functions within the cell. Furthermore, RNA molecules have other important functions. For example, transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules serve as "adaptors" between the mRNA molecule and the growing chain of amino acids that will form the protein. Additional, ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules are primary components of the ribosomes, the complex machineries that transform the mRNAs into proteins. See also “transcription and translation”.

SA:V mede a área de superfície por unidade de volume de um objeto. Dividir um objeto em pedaços muito pequenos aumenta drasticamente a sua área superficial, enquanto o volume do objeto permanece o mesmo. Por conseguinte, as novas áreas de superfície dos objetos ficam agora expostas. A grande potência das nanopartículas deve-se principalmente a esta característica: a SA:V extremamente grande das nanopartículas significa que, em comparação com o composto inicial original, mais átomos são expostos e capazes de reagir com o ambiente.

1. Price G, Patel DA. Drug Bioavailability. 2022 Jun 23. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan. PMID: 32496732.
2. Zafar MS, Ullah R, Qamar Z, Fareed MA, Amin F, Khurshid Z, Sefat F. Properties of dental biomaterials. From the book: Advanced Dental Biomaterials. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102476-8.00002-5
3. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Definition of Bioequivalence https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/abbreviated-new-animal-drug-applications/bioequivalence
4. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). What Are "Biologics" Questions and Answers https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/center-biologics-evaluation-and-research-cber/what-are-biologics-questions-and answers#:~:text=Biologics%20are%20isolated%20from%20a,and%20other%20cutting%2Dedge%20technologies.
5. Nature Portfolio: Biomimetics. https://www.nature.com/subjects/biomimetics
6. Kadry H, Noorani B, Cucullo L. A blood-brain barrier overview on structure, function, impairment, and biomarkers of integrity. Fluids Barriers CNS. 2020 Nov 18;17(1):69. doi: 10.1186/s12987-020-00230-3.
7. El-Sayed R. Carbon nanotubes in nanomedicine.
   https://openarchive.ki.se/xmlui/handle/10616/45043
8. NIH - What Are Clinical Trials and Studies? https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/what-are-clinical-trials-and-studies
9. LibreTexts libraries – Colloids.
   https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Solutions_and_Mixtures/Colloid
10. Abbasi E, Aval SF, Akbarzadeh A, Milani M, Nasrabadi HT, Joo SW, Hanifehpour Y, Nejati-Koshki K, Pashaei-Asl R. Dendrimers: synthesis, applications, and properties. Nanoscale Res Lett. 2014 May 21;9(1):247. doi: 10.1186/1556-276X-9-247.
11. Wu J. The Enhanced Permeability and Retention (EPR) Effect: The Significance of the Concept and Methods to Enhance Its Application. J Pers Med. 2021 Aug 6;11(8):771. doi: 10.3390/jpm11080771.
12. Nakamura Y, Mochida A, Choyke PL, Kobayashi H. Nanodrug Delivery: Is the Enhanced Permeability and Retention Effect Sufficient for Curing Cancer? Bioconjug Chem. 2016 Oct 19;27(10):2225-2238. doi: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.6b00437. Epub 2016 Sep 2.
13. Thiruppathi R, Mishra S, Ganapathy M, Padmanabhan P, Gulyás B. Nanoparticle Functionalization and Its Potentials for Molecular Imaging. Adv Sci (Weinh). 2016 Dec 16;4(3):1600279. doi: 10.1002/advs.201600279.
14. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Current Good Manufacturing Practice (CGMP) Regulations
    https://www.fda.gov/drugs/pharmaceutical-quality-resources/current-good-manufacturing-practice-cgmp-regulations
15. European Medicines Agency (EMA). Good manufacturing practice
    https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/human-regulatory/research-development/compliance/good-manufacturing-practice#:~:text=Good%20manufacturing%20practice%20(GMP)%20describes,European%20Union%20(EU)%20level.
16. National Cancer Institute (NIH)- Immunotherapy to Treat Cancer.
    https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/types/immunotherapy
17. Biology dictionary. Liposome. https://biologydictionary.net/liposome/
18. Ventola CL. Progress in Nanomedicine: Approved and Investigational Nanodrugs. P T. 2017 Dec;42(12):742-755.
19. Chen ML, John M, Lee SL, Tyner KM. Development Considerations for Nanocrystal Drug Products. AAPS J. 2017 May;19(3):642-651. doi: 10.1208/s12248-017-0064-x. Epub 2017 Mar 9.
20. Book: Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications - Fundamental Concepts, Biological Interactions and Clinical Applications. Gupta A. Chapter 21: Nanoemulsions.
    https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816662-8.00021-7
21. European Commission (EU) - Commission Recomendation of 10 June 2022 on the definition of nanomaterial (2022/C 229/01). https://environment.ec.europa.eu/news/chemicals-commission-revises-definition-nanomaterials-2022-06-10_en
22. European Commission publishes updated definition of nanomaterials.
    https://nano.swiss/en/news/european-commission-publishes-updated-definition-of-nanomaterials
23. Soares S, Sousa J, Pais A, Vitorino C. Nanomedicine: Principles, Properties, and Regulatory Issues. Front Chem. 2018 Aug 20;6:360. doi: 10.3389/fchem.2018.00360.
24. Khan I, Saeed K, Khan I. Nanoparticles: Properties, applications and toxicities. Arabian Journal of Chemistry. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2017.05.011
25. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Nanotechnology
    https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/nctr-research-focus-areas/nanotechnology#:~:text=Nanotechnology%2C%20the%20manipulation%20of%20material,and%20detect%20the%20nanoscale%20materials.
26. Pizzino G, Irrera N, Cucinotta M, Pallio G, Mannino F, Arcoraci V, Squadrito F, Altavilla D, Bitto A. Oxidative Stress: Harms and Benefits for Human Health. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2017;2017:8416763. doi: 10.1155/2017/8416763. Epub 2017 Jul 27.

HQ-NA-2500147 – August 2025

1. Price G, Patel DA. Drug Bioavailability. 2022 Jun 23. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan. PMID: 32496732.
2. Zafar MS, Ullah R, Qamar Z, Fareed MA, Amin F, Khurshid Z, Sefat F. Properties of dental biomaterials. From the book: Advanced Dental Biomaterials. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102476-8.00002-5
3. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Definition of Bioequivalence https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/abbreviated-new-animal-drug-applications/bioequivalence
4. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). What Are "Biologics" Questions and Answers https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/center-biologics-evaluation-and-research-cber/what-are-biologics-questions-and answers#:~:text=Biologics%20are%20isolated%20from%20a,and%20other%20cutting%2Dedge%20technologies.
5. Nature Portfolio: Biomimetics. https://www.nature.com/subjects/biomimetics
6. Kadry H, Noorani B, Cucullo L. A blood-brain barrier overview on structure, function, impairment, and biomarkers of integrity. Fluids Barriers CNS. 2020 Nov 18;17(1):69. doi: 10.1186/s12987-020-00230-3.
7. El-Sayed R. Carbon nanotubes in nanomedicine.
   https://openarchive.ki.se/xmlui/handle/10616/45043
8. NIH - What Are Clinical Trials and Studies? https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/what-are-clinical-trials-and-studies
9. LibreTexts libraries – Colloids.
   https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Solutions_and_Mixtures/Colloid
10. Abbasi E, Aval SF, Akbarzadeh A, Milani M, Nasrabadi HT, Joo SW, Hanifehpour Y, Nejati-Koshki K, Pashaei-Asl R. Dendrimers: synthesis, applications, and properties. Nanoscale Res Lett. 2014 May 21;9(1):247. doi: 10.1186/1556-276X-9-247.
11. Wu J. The Enhanced Permeability and Retention (EPR) Effect: The Significance of the Concept and Methods to Enhance Its Application. J Pers Med. 2021 Aug 6;11(8):771. doi: 10.3390/jpm11080771.
12. Nakamura Y, Mochida A, Choyke PL, Kobayashi H. Nanodrug Delivery: Is the Enhanced Permeability and Retention Effect Sufficient for Curing Cancer? Bioconjug Chem. 2016 Oct 19;27(10):2225-2238. doi: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.6b00437. Epub 2016 Sep 2.
13. Thiruppathi R, Mishra S, Ganapathy M, Padmanabhan P, Gulyás B. Nanoparticle Functionalization and Its Potentials for Molecular Imaging. Adv Sci (Weinh). 2016 Dec 16;4(3):1600279. doi: 10.1002/advs.201600279.
14. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Current Good Manufacturing Practice (CGMP) Regulations
    https://www.fda.gov/drugs/pharmaceutical-quality-resources/current-good-manufacturing-practice-cgmp-regulations
15. European Medicines Agency (EMA). Good manufacturing practice
    https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/human-regulatory/research-development/compliance/good-manufacturing-practice#:~:text=Good%20manufacturing%20practice%20(GMP)%20describes,European%20Union%20(EU)%20level.
16. National Cancer Institute (NIH)- Immunotherapy to Treat Cancer.
    https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/types/immunotherapy
17. Biology dictionary. Liposome. https://biologydictionary.net/liposome/
18. Ventola CL. Progress in Nanomedicine: Approved and Investigational Nanodrugs. P T. 2017 Dec;42(12):742-755.
19. Chen ML, John M, Lee SL, Tyner KM. Development Considerations for Nanocrystal Drug Products. AAPS J. 2017 May;19(3):642-651. doi: 10.1208/s12248-017-0064-x. Epub 2017 Mar 9.
20. Book: Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications - Fundamental Concepts, Biological Interactions and Clinical Applications. Gupta A. Chapter 21: Nanoemulsions.
    https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816662-8.00021-7
21. European Commission (EU) - Commission Recomendation of 10 June 2022 on the definition of nanomaterial (2022/C 229/01). https://environment.ec.europa.eu/news/chemicals-commission-revises-definition-nanomaterials-2022-06-10_en
22. European Commission publishes updated definition of nanomaterials.
    https://nano.swiss/en/news/european-commission-publishes-updated-definition-of-nanomaterials
23. Soares S, Sousa J, Pais A, Vitorino C. Nanomedicine: Principles, Properties, and Regulatory Issues. Front Chem. 2018 Aug 20;6:360. doi: 10.3389/fchem.2018.00360.
24. Khan I, Saeed K, Khan I. Nanoparticles: Properties, applications and toxicities. Arabian Journal of Chemistry. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2017.05.011
25. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Nanotechnology
    https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/nctr-research-focus-areas/nanotechnology#:~:text=Nanotechnology%2C%20the%20manipulation%20of%20material,and%20detect%20the%20nanoscale%20materials.
26. Pizzino G, Irrera N, Cucinotta M, Pallio G, Mannino F, Arcoraci V, Squadrito F, Altavilla D, Bitto A. Oxidative Stress: Harms and Benefits for Human Health. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2017;2017:8416763. doi: 10.1155/2017/8416763. Epub 2017 Jul 27.

HQ-NA-2500147 – agosto de 2025

1. Price G, Patel DA. Drug Bioavailability. 2022 Jun 23. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2022 Jan. PMID: 32496732.
2. Zafar MS, Ullah R, Qamar Z, Fareed MA, Amin F, Khurshid Z, Sefat F. Properties of dental biomaterials. From the book: Advanced Dental Biomaterials. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102476-8.00002-5
3. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Definition of Bioequivalence https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/abbreviated-new-animal-drug-applications/bioequivalence
4. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). What Are "Biologics" Questions and Answers https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/center-biologics-evaluation-and-research-cber/what-are-biologics-questions-and answers#:~:text=Biologics%20are%20isolated%20from%20a,and%20other%20cutting%2Dedge%20technologies.
5. Nature Portfolio: Biomimetics. https://www.nature.com/subjects/biomimetics
6. Kadry H, Noorani B, Cucullo L. A blood-brain barrier overview on structure, function, impairment, and biomarkers of integrity. Fluids Barriers CNS. 2020 Nov 18;17(1):69. doi: 10.1186/s12987-020-00230-3.
7. El-Sayed R. Carbon nanotubes in nanomedicine.
   https://openarchive.ki.se/xmlui/handle/10616/45043
8. NIH - What Are Clinical Trials and Studies? https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/what-are-clinical-trials-and-studies
9. LibreTexts libraries – Colloids.
   https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Solutions_and_Mixtures/Colloid
10. Abbasi E, Aval SF, Akbarzadeh A, Milani M, Nasrabadi HT, Joo SW, Hanifehpour Y, Nejati-Koshki K, Pashaei-Asl R. Dendrimers: synthesis, applications, and properties. Nanoscale Res Lett. 2014 May 21;9(1):247. doi: 10.1186/1556-276X-9-247.
11. Wu J. The Enhanced Permeability and Retention (EPR) Effect: The Significance of the Concept and Methods to Enhance Its Application. J Pers Med. 2021 Aug 6;11(8):771. doi: 10.3390/jpm11080771.
12. Nakamura Y, Mochida A, Choyke PL, Kobayashi H. Nanodrug Delivery: Is the Enhanced Permeability and Retention Effect Sufficient for Curing Cancer? Bioconjug Chem. 2016 Oct 19;27(10):2225-2238. doi: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.6b00437. Epub 2016 Sep 2.
13. Thiruppathi R, Mishra S, Ganapathy M, Padmanabhan P, Gulyás B. Nanoparticle Functionalization and Its Potentials for Molecular Imaging. Adv Sci (Weinh). 2016 Dec 16;4(3):1600279. doi: 10.1002/advs.201600279.
14. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Current Good Manufacturing Practice (CGMP) Regulations
    https://www.fda.gov/drugs/pharmaceutical-quality-resources/current-good-manufacturing-practice-cgmp-regulations
15. European Medicines Agency (EMA). Good manufacturing practice
    https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/human-regulatory/research-development/compliance/good-manufacturing-practice#:~:text=Good%20manufacturing%20practice%20(GMP)%20describes,European%20Union%20(EU)%20level.
16. National Cancer Institute (NIH)- Immunotherapy to Treat Cancer.
    https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/types/immunotherapy
17. Biology dictionary. Liposome. https://biologydictionary.net/liposome/
18. Ventola CL. Progress in Nanomedicine: Approved and Investigational Nanodrugs. P T. 2017 Dec;42(12):742-755.
19. Chen ML, John M, Lee SL, Tyner KM. Development Considerations for Nanocrystal Drug Products. AAPS J. 2017 May;19(3):642-651. doi: 10.1208/s12248-017-0064-x. Epub 2017 Mar 9.
20. Book: Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications - Fundamental Concepts, Biological Interactions and Clinical Applications. Gupta A. Chapter 21: Nanoemulsions.
    https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816662-8.00021-7
21. European Commission (EU) - Commission Recomendation of 10 June 2022 on the definition of nanomaterial (2022/C 229/01). https://environment.ec.europa.eu/news/chemicals-commission-revises-definition-nanomaterials-2022-06-10_en
22. European Commission publishes updated definition of nanomaterials.
    https://nano.swiss/en/news/european-commission-publishes-updated-definition-of-nanomaterials
23. Soares S, Sousa J, Pais A, Vitorino C. Nanomedicine: Principles, Properties, and Regulatory Issues. Front Chem. 2018 Aug 20;6:360. doi: 10.3389/fchem.2018.00360.
24. Khan I, Saeed K, Khan I. Nanoparticles: Properties, applications and toxicities. Arabian Journal of Chemistry. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arabjc.2017.05.011
25. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Nanotechnology
    https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/nctr-research-focus-areas/nanotechnology#:~:text=Nanotechnology%2C%20the%20manipulation%20of%20material,and%20detect%20the%20nanoscale%20materials.
26. Pizzino G, Irrera N, Cucinotta M, Pallio G, Mannino F, Arcoraci V, Squadrito F, Altavilla D, Bitto A. Oxidative Stress: Harms and Benefits for Human Health. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2017;2017:8416763. doi: 10.1155/2017/8416763. Epub 2017 Jul 27.

HQ-NA-2500147 – agosto de 2025

La SA:V mide el área de superficie por unidad de volumen de un objeto. Al descomponer un objeto en fragmentos muy pequeños, aumenta drásticamente su área de superficie, mientras que el volumen del objeto permanece igual. Por lo tanto, ahora se exponen nuevas áreas de superficie de los objetos. El gran poder de las nanopartículas se debe principalmente a esta característica: la SA:V de nanopartículas extremadamente grande significa que, en comparación con el compuesto inicial original, más átomos están expuestos y pueden reaccionar con el entorno. 

La resistencia a antimicrobianos se produce cuando los patógenos (principalmente bacterias y hongos) desarrollan mecanismos moleculares que les permiten volverse resistentes a los fármacos diseñados para matarlos. 

La respuesta inmunitaria es la reacción del sistema inmunitario (compuesto por células y tejidos inmunitarios) de un organismo contra sustancias extrañas y patógenos. En algunas afecciones, el sistema inmunitario también puede reaccionar contra las automoléculas. Esta reacción se define como respuesta autoinmunitaria (o autoinmunidad). Existen varios tipos de células que regulan la respuesta inmunitaria, incluidos monocitos, macrófagos, mastocitos, células dendríticas, linfocitos citolíticos naturales (NK), neutrófilos, eosinófilos, basófilos y linfocitos (linfocitos B y linfocitos T).